Establish a professional relationship with the landowner or land manager. Get permission before you do anything. Clear and frequent communication is the backbone of all good partnerships.
A professional relationship accomplishes more and creates an "everyone wins" situation. Meeting with different user groups gives everyone a sense of ownership and ensures the trail's future.
Let land managers know you're part of an organized group. Present a written proposal that describes how and where you want to improve the trail system. For their part, land managers should seek input from users on trail projects.
Groundbreaking on Federal land may require a National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) study. Some trail projects fall under a Category Exclusion that can save land managers time and money. It may take a while to obtain a permit, but it must be done. Protection of the land always comes first.
Be patient and willing to compromise. Great trails often result from a blend of ideas.
Locate the boundaries, then find the people who own or manage the land within them. This is crucial so the trail is not built on land that's off limits. In some cases, trails should divert people away from boundaries. For example, you wouldn't want users to go near a rifle range.
A well-presented trail system can gain access to areas not in the original plan. Landowners adjacent to open space may be willing to allow use of their property, too.
Think about the potential trail users. Does the trail system accommodate their needs and desires? Think about the future as well. Will different trails be necessary to serve a growing population and evolving mix of users?
A trail's design shapes the experiences of those who use it. The best trail system offers something for everyone by recognizing that each trail user is unique.
It would be wrong to assume that all mountain bikers want challenging terrain or that all hikers want solitude. Even so, it's possible to make a few generalizations about trail users.
Walkers: They usually want a relatively brief jaunt. They do fine on short trails that give them a direct path from one natural feature to another.
Hikers: TheyÕre usually familiar with the outdoors and like a more strenuous walk. They can handle difficult terrain and steep grades. They will generally stay on trails that are direct yet interesting.
Rock Climbers: They use trails to reach climbing areas. Contour trails may meander too much for their needs. They prefer fall-line trails that provide direct access. To be sustainable, fall-line trails must be armored with rock or have a sturdy staircase with excellent drainage.
Backpackers: This group yearns for a backcountry experience, and will travel many miles to reach it. Even though they have an intended destination they are less apt to shortcut because they carry heavy loads that hinder maneuverability. Gentle trail grades linking natural features help keep long distance foot travel interesting. Water sources should be regularly spaced and near suitable camping sites.
Trail Runners: They enjoy connecting trail loops to add variety in their workouts. Most runners want several miles of rolling contours with occasional challenging sections.
Equestrians: People on horses are the heaviest, widest and tallest non-motorized users. Their trails require a wide corridor and a high ceiling. Contour trails with a durable tread are the most sustainable. When designing a trail for horses, dogs and other pets, include water crossings or drink stops.
Endurance Athletes: Some trail runners, mountain bikers and equestrians like to push their limits. These people seek trail networks that are as much as a hundred miles long. A large network is more appealing than multiple laps of a short loop.
Disabled Trail Users: The Americans with Disabilities Act is a 1990 federal law that helps disabled people have equal access to public facilities. With improved skill, endurance and equipment such as off-road wheelchairs, more trail opportunities are being sought. Suitable trails have a wide, smooth tread with a gentle grade (an average of five percent) and no staircases.
ATVs: All-terrain vehicles require a 4- to 5-foot-wide tread that's open and flowing. Their wide tires and horsepower allow travel on sandy or rocky trails. Fitted with racks, ATVs are popular with hunters, fishermen and others who take loads into the backcountry. Land managers and trail crews find ATVs useful in many work situations.
Motorcycles: Also known as dirt bikes, they require more operator skill than ATVs and can be used on narrower trails. Riders prefer trails that are open and flowing, and they can cover more than a hundred miles a day. Sensitive trails can be armored to withstand the weight.
Beginner Cross-Country Riders: Casual cyclists like gentle, relatively short trails. As they become more skilled, they often seek longer, more difficult trails. Rough, arduous or twisty sections satisfy the need for technical challenge and help control speed. Mountain bikers tend to stay on trails if they're fun to ride.
Avid Cross-Country Riders: These experienced cyclists are comfortable in the backcountry. They're typically self-sufficient, carrying tools, water, food, clothing and sometimes a first-aid kit. Avid riders seek trails that let them cover from 10 to 100 miles in search of solitude, nature and challenge. Desirable trails feature several miles of connecting loops with natural obstacles.
Downhillers: These are advanced riders with sophisticated equipment that's specifically designed for descending steep and technical trails. They like steep, difficult trails. The most sustainable are rocky contours with many grade reversals. It's helpful to have a vehicle shuttle for reaching the top. Ski areas that provide summer lift service are popular with downhillers.
Technical/Trials Riders: They like challenges such as drop-offs, ledges, logs, elevated bridges, dirt jumps and seesaws. Some riders want these technical features within cross-country rides, while others prefer them as a stand-alone experience. One solution is special-use areas, similar to snowboard parks at ski resorts. On backcountry trails, these technical features should blend with nature, flow with the trail and be built well.
People enjoy trails for solitude, escape, exercise, training, fresh air, social interaction and many other personal reasons. But all trail users have one thing in common: They want to be outside, in a natural setting. The number and variety of trail users has increased dramatically in just a few years. The best trail systems offer variety, challenge, long distances and sustainability. They keep users on-trail by providing the experiences people want.
Save time in the field by studying maps, aerial photographs, master plans and so on. In some areas, a Geographic Information System (GIS) study may have already been done. A detailed GIS might have many layers of information on one map, including ownership, topography, hydrography, soils, vegetation, habitat and slope grades. Use these resources to become familiar with the area and begin establishing control points.
When it's time to go into the field, take your compass, map and altimeter. A global positioning system (GPS) is also a valuable tool. It can help you pinpoint boundaries, control points and trail mileage.
In forested areas, the ideal time to survey is during autumn or winter when visibility is at its best. Return in spring or summer to check water levels.
Control points are places that influence where a trail goes. The beginning and end are basic control points. Others include parking areas, trailheads, structures, slopes for turns or switchbacks, road or water crossings and other trails.
In addition, desirable control points can be places you want trail users to visit. These include scenic overlooks, waterfalls, rock outcroppings, historical sites, archeological sites, lakes, rivers and other natural features or points of interest. Consider the mix of users and the control points or terrain that will appeal to them. Design the trail to connect these places, keeping the route interesting along the way.
Inappropriate control points are places you want users to avoid. Examples are low-lying wet areas, flat ground that may hold water or sand, extremely steep sideslopes, fall lines, environmentally sensitive wildlife habitat or plant communities, certain water crossings, riparian areas, unresearched archeological sites and private property. If there's an inappropriate control point, keep trail users well out of range. People are notorious for spotting something interesting and creating their own unsustainable social trail to it.
Water crossings present special challenges as control points. Can a stream be forded or should a bridge be built? Geography and regulations usually provide the answer. Consult land managers and check other trails in the area to see what's customary. In general, design trails to avoid frequent water crossings.
 Loops provide options. The majority of the system can be shared use, with a few areas designed for single use. Keep core loops near trailheads open and flowing to accommodate the widest variety of users. Outer loops can become progressively more technical and strenuous for people who want challenge. |
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Trail systems with loops are appealing because they offer the most variety. People love the adventure of starting down one path and returning to the same point from another direction. Loops let people enjoy trails of varying distances, difficulty or ecosystems.
Several different types of loops can work for a trail system, depending on geography. A park that parallels a river may use linked loop trails that follow the water. Each loop is like a link in a chain. Users can choose a small loop, a combination of loops or take the whole outer loop. In mountainous terrain, a trail may climb one drainage to a summit, then descend another drainage. Stacked loop-trail systems make optimum use of available land.
In metro areas, the core trail leading from the trailhead or parking lot should be wide and smooth to appeal to a variety of users. People like to travel side by side and socialize at the start. Because a core trail is the entrance to the rest of the system, it gets the most use. Other loops branch from it and become narrower and more challenging as they get farther from the trailhead. Users seeking difficult or remote experiences are willing to travel greater distances.
Now you can begin to connect the control points. Mark each one on a topographic (topo) map. Use green for desirable points, red for inappropriate ones.
Draw a contouring route connecting green points while avoiding red points. Also avoid fall lines - the most direct route from the top of a hill to the bottom. That's the path water takes.
Look for natural contouring corridors, but don't let ease of construction override proper design. The best trails require few man-made structures such as staircases, water bars, bridges and turnpikes. Place the trail on the uphill side of large trees so it's less likely to impact root systems. In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes may be desirable because they dry faster. In hot or desert environments, cooler north-facing slopes may be better.
The ideal ground drains well yet has cohesive soil (sticks together). Some soils are much more resistant to impact and loosening than others. Sand drains well but is not cohesive. Clay is highly cohesive but doesn't drain well. Silt, another main soil type, falls somewhere in between.
"Water always wins; the trick is not letting it play the game."
Sustainable trail grades minimize the effects of water and people. Good grades are usually shallow and address factors such as topography, soil type, rainfall and the number of trail users.
A clinometer measures a grade in degrees or percent. For highways, roads and trails, percent is used because it's more precise. Percent of grade is the relationship between vertical gain and horizontal distance, known as "rise over run." It's found by dividing rise by run. For example, a 100-foot section of trail that gains 10 feet of elevation has a 10 percent rise (10 divided by 100 equals 0.10). Therefore, the trail has a 10 percent grade.
 Clinometer |
 Digital Level |
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A trail tread grade shouldn't exceed half the grade of the hillside or sideslope that the trail is traversing. If the grade does exceed half the sideslope, it's considered a fall-line trail. Water will flow down the trail rather than sheet across it. Measure the sideslope, then keep the trail tread grade under half of that figure to ensure good drainage.
For example, if you're building across a hillside with a sideslope of 20 percent, the trail tread grade should not exceed 10 percent.
There is a limit to this half rule: A trail cannot be indefinitely steep. There can be short, steep sections, but try to limit the maximum tread grade to 15 percent. Of course, this depends on a number of factors, including soil integrity, rainfall, trail flow and number of users. Consider the surroundings to decide what works best.
Trail grades can be steeper on solid rock. But earthen sections between rock may need to be fortified or armored to prevent soil loosening and erosion.
Generally, an overall trail grade of 10 percent or less is sustainable. However, there may be steep places where this grade can't be achieved. Trail tread grades can be as high as 15 percent as long as the trail's overall grade doesn't exceed 10 percent.
Begin flagging the route with conservative grades under 8 percent. This allows flexibility in case there's an inappropriate control point. By staying under the maximum grade, you can adjust the route without starting at the beginning.
As the trail contours across a hillside, the tread should tilt slightly away from the high side. This tilt, called outslope, ensures that water will sheet across the trail. Outslope is a major reason why contour trails work. For more information, see Chapter 4.
A well-built trail has gentle trail grades, an outsloped trail tread and grade reversals. As the trail snakes across a hillside, a subtle left or right turn creates rolls or undulations - grade reversals that help divert water off the trail. A contour trail on a steep slope may need grade reversals every 20 to 50 feet, depending on soil type and rainfall. The steeper the grade, the more grade reversals you should have.
To reduce the need to build water-diversion structures later, the original design should encourage smooth water runoff through subtle grade changes. Without proper maintenance, any trail will eventually lose outslope. Grade reversals act as a backup to prevent water from focusing. For more details, see Appendix A.
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Trail users are defined by their means of travel (e.g., foot, horse, bicycle), but this is just one distinguishing characteristic. Speed is important, too. For example, a mountain biker and a runner probably have a more similar trail experience than a runner and a walker, because their speeds are nearly the same.
Mountain bikers, runners and some equestrians travel faster than walkers or hikers. A trail designed for them should have a certain tempo or rhythm. We call this flow. Understanding flow can reduce erosion, user conflict and accidents.
Contour trail designs can have three basic types of flow: open and flowing, tight and technical, or a hybrid.
Open and flowing trails are relatively gentle. They have smooth surfaces, a wide tread corridor, long sight lines, sweeping turns and few technical challenges. They appeal to less-skilled cyclists and people who enjoy traveling fast. Open and flowing trails are fine, but they invite higher speeds and are also attractive to motorized users.
Tight and technical trails have sharper turns and twists, rougher surfaces, a narrower tread and natural obstacles. They provide challenges and thrills for mountain bikers while keeping speed down, which in turn may reduce user conflict. Smooth trails can be made more technical by adding rocks or logs, a process known as texturing.
Hybrid trails successfully blend features of the above two types. Hybrid trails are often a good choice for urban areas. These trails may be wider, yet twisty with a rocky, technical tread. Trees, brush and obstacles should be below eye level, allowing for long sight lines that help reduce user conflict. Slightly wider trails allow users to pass each other, while technical challenges reduce speed and add variety.
Proper transitions are essential when open and flowing sections are combined with tight and technical sections. Transitions should occur gradually or be atop hills. Abrupt transitions are likely to make cyclists brake hard and skid, resulting in braking bumps, and in some cases forcing users off trail.
Flow is vital on trails for cyclists. Mountain bikers love the rhythm of a trail where one turn blends into the next, and every descent leads into another rise. A trail with good flow helps minimize erosion, user conflict, and safety concerns.
After the above preliminary work is done, use flagging tape to mark the trail corridor you're proposing. Once this general layout receives environmental clearance and land manager approval, you can establish the specific route.
Be sure you can see at least two consecutive flags from any point along the proposed trail. There's no such thing as over-flagging. Use plenty of flagging to make your design clear to the construction crew, ensuring that the trail is built the way you envision it.
When choosing your flag color, remember that yellow or orange don't work well during autumn where hardwoods grow. Green won't stand out in summer. Fluorescent pink is good in most areas year-round. Check with the local land manager to make sure other projects aren't being flagged with the color you intend to use. When tying flags around tree trunks, put the knot on the side you want the trail to pass. Also, put flags at eye level so it's easier to establish grades with a clinometer.
This step should involve trail users, land managers and the work crew. Including the key players in decisions gives everyone a sense of ownership and pride in the trail.
Reach agreement on trail dimensions, including corridor width, tread width and ceiling. Consider how the trail will be built, how long it will take, how much it will cost and who will provide the labor. Develop a timeline for construction.
Many land management agencies require studies prior to new trail construction. These may be biological, botanical, cultural, archaeological, or historical. Or, a simple walk-through by the area's naturalist may be sufficient. Studies can be expensive and time consuming, so be patient. Make sure the plan you propose is exactly what you want, because changing it after this step may require going through the entire process again. Assessment studies usually cover a corridor 20 to 50 feet on either side of the flag line.
Now you're ready to stake the exact location of the trail. This includes the design details that give the trail its unique character and ensure its sustainability. Flag the dimensions of the corridor, ceiling and tread. Identify the obstacles that will be left in the tread or included in its design. Let natural terrain features guide you.
Pin flags work best for marking tread location. Pin flags are reusable, lightweight and can be placed almost anywhere. Short flags are fine for desert or arid areas. Use long flags when there is vegetation.
For open and flowing trails, flags can be placed six or more feet apart. A tight and twisty trail might require flags to be three to six feet apart. It's important to keep spacing consistent. Each flag is like a dot - connect the dots to mark the trail. This helps you visualize flow, grades, grade reversals, turns and all the other key features.
Walk (or run if you can) the entire flag line in both directions, making adjustments to improve flow. Avoid long, straight lines. Use natural obstacles to accentuate curves and grade reversals. Be creative to produce an exciting pathway.
A well-flagged tread resembles a serpentine line with rounded arcs. Optimum flow comes from consistency in the radius of turns.
Outline the proposed tread by putting pin flags on the inside (uphill) edge, the center, or the outside (downhill) edge. The downhill edge is preferable because flags can remain during excavation to help the construction crew envision flow and the depth of bench cut.
When building a crib wall to raise the trail's downhill edge, place pin flags in the center of the trail to indicate the tread's finished depth. This is important for maintaining the grade.
By following these 10 steps, you will create a contour trail that withstands the test of time, people and water. But there are exceptions to every rule, the most common of which are covered in upcoming chapters.